.
.
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIGION
OVERVIEW
The civilization of Ancient Egypt lasted longer than the entire span of what we have come to accept as “recorded history”; over three thousand years. During these millennia the Egyptians developed a multitude of gods and goddesses, as well as esoteric practices of which we are still unravelling their meaning . Besides this, Egypt was the source of the first true monotheistic religion, under the pharaoh Akhenaton. This rich tradition was mostly unknown until the early nineteenth century, when the Egyptian language was finally deciphered.
Many books have been written on religion in ancient Egypt. This brief overview is meant only to explain some of the basic concepts and to introduce some of the gods. Religion in ancient Egypt was not unlike modern times. Today, not everyone believes in the same way, or of the same god. Egypt was no different. Individual Pharaohs worshiped their own gods, as did the workers, priests, merchants and peasants.
****
Egypt has a long history and to understand the diversity of Egyptian religion one must first have a basic understanding of the general history of Egypt. The amazing and mysterious civilization lasted from around 3200 BCE until about 525 BCE before outsiders completely conquered them. Even then, vestiges of the Egyptian religion were still practiced in places until about the 4th Century AD, a remarkably long time.
Traces of ancient beliefs remained in Egyptian folk traditions into modern times, but its impact on modern societies greatly increased with the French Campaign in Egypt and Syria in 1798. As a result of it, Westerners began to study Egyptian beliefs firsthand, and Egyptian religious motifs were adopted into Western art. Egyptian religion has since had a significant impact on popular culture. Due to continued interest in Egyptian belief, in the late 20th century several new religious groups formed based on different reconstructions of ancient Egyptian religion.
****
Archaeologists divide ancient Egypt's history into three big blocks of time. In each block of time, all pharaohs behaved in a certain way. These blocks of time were called "Kingdoms". Scientists named these blocks the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom.
-1. During the Old Kingdom, pharaohs were buried in pyramids.
-2. During the Middle Kingdom, pharaohs were buried in hidden tombs all over the place.
-3. During the New Kingdom, pharaohs were all buried in hidden tombs in the same geographical area known as the Valley of the
Kings.
A slightly more detailed history of Egypt is as follows:
The some of the major Gods of ancient Egypt were:
-Ra - Ra was the sun god and the most important god to the Ancient Egyptians. Ra was drawn as a man with a hawk head and a headdress with a sun disk. At one point Ra was combined with another god Amun and the two made an even more powerful god, Amun-Ra. Ra was said to have created all forms of life and was the supreme ruler of the gods.
-Isis - Isis was the mother goddess. It was thought that she would protect and help people in need. She was drawn as a woman with a headdress in the shape of a throne.
-Osiris - Osiris was ruler of the underworld and god of the dead. He was the husband of Isis and father of Horus. Osiris was drawn as a mummified man with a feathered headdress.
-Horus - Horus was the god of the sky. Horus was the son of Isis and Osiris. He was drawn as a man with the head of a hawk. The ruler of the Egyptians, Pharaoh, was thought to be the living version Horus. In this way Pharaoh was the leader of the Egyptian religion and the people's representative to the gods.
-Thoth -The moon. Thoth was the god of knowledge. He blessed the Egyptians with writing, medicine, and mathematics. He was also god of the moon. Thoth is drawn as a man with an Ibis bird head. Sometimes he was represented as a baboon.
-Aten- The creator of all things was either Re, Amun, Ptah, Khnum or Aten, depending on which version of the myth was currently in use.Was initially not actually a god, but was the actual shape of the sun, the disk (or, aten), was later deified into Egypt's only monotheistic god.
-Seth- Storms, evil and confusion.
-Ma'at, who represented balance, justice and truth. He was the counterpart of Seth.
For reference, there was a group of nine principal Gods in Egyptian mythology that were worshiped at Heliopolis. They were:
- The sun god Atum (a/k/a Ra);
- his children Shu (a/k/a Thoth) and Tefnut;
- their children Geb and Nut and
- their children Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys.
- Sometimes also included is the son of Osiris and Isis, Horus.
The depictions of the gods in art were not meant as literal representations of how the gods might appear if they were visible, as the gods' true natures were believed to be mysterious. Instead, these depictions gave recognizable forms to the abstract deities by using symbolic imagery to indicate each god's role in nature . similar as to how we might use an emoji today to indicate mood.. Thus, for example, the funerary god Anubis was portrayed as a jackal, a creature whose scavenging habits threatened the preservation of the body, in an effort to counter this threat and employ it for protection. His black skin was symbolic of the color of mummified flesh and the fertile black soil that Egyptians saw as a symbol of resurrection. However, this iconography was not fixed, and many of the gods could be depicted in more than one form.
*****
One thing that does seem familiar about their ancient religion was that people were very concerned about the afterlife. Furthermore, in order to avoid being counted among the damned of the afterlife, one had to not only venerate the Egyptian gods, but also live by a code of standards that would be judged after death and have ones body embalmed.
The Pharaoh represented Egypt before the gods, and it is he who is depicted most often worshiping them while standing, kneeling or even crawling. In making offerings to the gods, the Pharaoh’s attempts to secure order, or Ma'at, which is compulsory for gods as well as Pharaohs.
CENTRAL ORGANIZATION
Directly under the Pharaoh were the priests. Their duty was to take care of the images of the gods. They also prepared the statues, or images, for the religious festivals. It was the priests’ role to read the scrolls before religious events. In later dynasties the priests were the voices of the oracles. Special compartments, called priest holes, were strategically placed inside the temple. The priests were able to speak from these holes unseen by the person asking questions or favors of the gods.
Oracles were considered the pinnacle of the decision of the gods. The priests were in charge of the temple riches and granaries. They were on a rotation schedule and might work officially one week out of the month. Their laboratories were in the temples, where they prepared incense and healing potions. What we think of as wizards originated with the priests. Shrouded in mystery, they were seldom seen by the common people unless they were reading magical texts or performing religious rituals.
CREATIONIST BELIEF
To understand the Egyptian- Myth of Creation, one must first understand that it is a complicated story. Four "cosmologies," or theories about creation are involved, each developing over different periods in ancient Egypt. There are some common elements to each theory. For example, each theory holds that in the beginning, only a primordial, stagnant ocean called Nu existed. In addition, the four theories agree that out of Nu, rose the primeval hill. Each cosmology believed it was their temple that stood on this hill. The first step-pyramids are thought to be symbolic of this mound. All cosmologies share the belief that creation was a slow process, not catastrophic. Finally, they also all agree that there was a "First Time," or a time period when the gods actually lived on earth.
With this foundation, the Heliopolitan cosmogony develops the myth further. The first event was the creation of Atum, the god of Heliopolis. There is dispute over whether he created himself, or was the son of Nu. Some texts say he first appeared over the hill, others say he was, himself, the hill. Eventually, Atum became associated with Ra, the sun-god. Ra-Atum at this point is said to be the coming of the light to disperse the darkness of Nu. Ra-Atum is symbolized by the Phoenix in this context. His next task was to create other gods. He did this by masturbation, not having a mate. This was not offensive to ancient Egyptians, but in fact intensified his power in their minds.
Ra-Atum gave birth to twins. Shu, his son and god of the air, was spit out, and his daughter, Tefnut, goddess of world order was vomited out by Ra-Atum. The Twins were raised by Nu and supervised by Ra-Atum's eye. Shu and Tefnut gave birth to Geb, god of the earth, and his wife and sister, Nut, goddess of the sky. Geb and Nut, in turn, were the parents of Isis, Osiris, Nephthys, and Set. These four gods, especially Osiris play a major role in later myths. Horus, another god was the son of Isis and Osiris. These five younger gods and goddesses may have been incorporated by the priests of Heliopolis. Whatever the case, this "Ennead," or grouping of gods, were very much a part of tradition during this time.
From here, the order of dominance or precedence becomes contradictory. Some text place Horus in a very high position, others give the right to Nut. Still others claim that Atum placed Geb over the Ennead, which included himself. The priests during this period believed themselves to represent Geb and Nut, not Atum. Eventually, it is Ra, the sun-god, who is considered supreme. However, Osiris later assumes this role.
Later, in 3100 B.C., Upper and Lower Egypt were joined and the capital became Memphis. This began a new theory of creation. Ptah, the high god of Memphis was deemed creator. At some point Ptah was even declared to be Nu (thus placed above Atum, high god of Heliopolis). The Ennead of Heliopolis was said to be merely a manifestation of Ptah. This displacement of Heliopolitan cosmogony was necessary to establish and maintain the Memphite superiority.
Yet another cosmogony existed which was quite different from that of Heliopolis and Memphis. This was in a city in Upper Egypt called Hermopolis. It was said that this theory came before any other. Instead of an Ennead, Hermopolitans had a group of eight gods called an Ogdoad. This group consisted of Nun and Naunet, Huh and Hauhet, Kuk and Kauket, and Amon and Amaunet. According to this theory, these eight gods were responsible for creating the world. After this was done, the eight ruled the world during a time called the Golden Age. When they died, they went to the underworld, from where they still had power to make the Nile flow and the sun to rise. Nun and Naunet symbolize water, Huh and Hauhet represent "unendingness," Kuk and Kauket signify darkness, and Amon and Amaunet symbolize the air.
Finally, in Thebes during the New Kingdom time from 1546-1085 B.C., a new cosmogony arose. At this time, all the other theories were widely accepted; therefore, it was essential that the Thebans incorporate the main features of these theories into their own. The chief god of Thebes was Amon, who was already associated with the air. This made it a simple task to also instill in Amon the power of the "supreme and invisible creator (Ames, 1965)." It was said that he created himself, having no father or mother, and was born in secret. Thebans claimed their city was the first city, and that all other cities were modeled after it. All of the cosmogonies claimed this. Thebans claimed that Thebes was the Eye of Ra, son of Amon. Going beyond what had been done in the past, Thebans claimed that entire cosmogonies were merely aspects of Amon; merely forms of him.
It is important to note that each translation of ancient Egyptian text renders its own perspective on what is being said. There are many inconsistencies in each account. Therefore, it is a very complicated and difficult task to summarize the myth of creation, or any myth, for that matter. From source to source, the names of the gods differ; even spellings differ. Here we attempt to give a brief outline or a basic knowledge of Egyptian mythology.
Another mythological symbol associated with the Creation Myth is the Phoenix. The Phoenix was said to travel from Arabia to Heliopolis once every five hundred years. The cycles of time were said to be set by the Phoenix, also known as the Benu bird, and the temple of the Phoenix became the "centre of calendrical regulation (Clark, 1960)." During the Middle Kingdom, it became the soul of Osiris and it was also at this time that it became associated with the planet Venus, the morning star, which was said to be the suns guide. All of the above representations were minor associations, however. The Phoenixs main role was as the one who created himself, thus symbolizing Ra-Atum.
Common to all cosmogonies of creation is the temple. Each theory places its temple on the hill rising up from Nu. Myths concerning the form, origin and significance are mostly Memphite in origin; myths about the daily temple rituals are primarily Heliopolitan in nature. One such temple, and possibly the earliest described in myth, was that of the Falcon, associated with the god Horus who was the hunters god, maybe a war god, and later, a sky god. Thus, the Falcon was a symbol of majesty and power, and the model for the pharaohs. According to myth, this temples erection was a natural event and signified the final event in the process of creation. It started out as a shelter for the Falcons perch and this portion remained the most sacred place in the temple. The detail in which the temple is described exemplifies the high level of development that was reached even before historic times. Many temples like this were constructed in pre-dynastic Egypt, most likely.
The temple of the sun-god was the second type of temple built. This began as one rectangular structure or sanctuary. Other chambers were added, and a wall surrounded the structure. Some research shows that there was another type of temple of the sun-god that consisted of one sanctuary only. This temple signifies the beginning of the history of the actual temple physically built in Egypt.
Myth has it that the above temples descended from one primeval temple that was built to shelter the successor of the creator. This temple is said to have stood on the hill rising up from Nu, as did every other temple described in the various cosmogonies. However, this was a living temple, the body of the god of the temple, who took his physical form using the temple.
VISION OF GOD
Consistently, from the beginning of Egyptian religion to its final stand at the Temple of Philae, most scholars agree that the religion was polytheistic. Even during the 18th Dynasty reign of Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) , he tried to introduce and promote a single god, the Aten, Egyptian religion cannot be said to have been monotheistic, for while the king himself, during his 17 year reign, may have worshiped a single god, and even that is uncertain, his religion never caught on and for the most part, Egyptians in general continued to worship their traditional gods.Akhen. Akhenaten wrote a poem 14 centuries before Christ that is almost word for word similar to the 28th Psalm in the Bible (The Lord is my Shepard , I shall not want. He maketh me to lie down in green pastures,etc)
The situation with gods is further complicated by syncretism and other forms of combining them. The term "syncretism" has a special meaning in Egyptology, referring to the combination or merging of aspects of one god in another. This feature first appeared in the 4th Dynasty with Atum-Re of Heliopolis and by Middle Kingdom, there were many such combinations. It has been shown that this was probably a temporary fusion of gods, each keeping their own characteristics.
DENOMINATIONS
Like many modern religions, certain gods (saints, deities) were worshiped in different areas.s stated above, certain gods were worshiped in different areas. Local cities or villages, known as nomes, often had unique gods that were known only to that region. On occasion, these gods attained country -wide recognition and became the myths and legends that were passed on from century to century. Below is a listing of the main gods of the many gods of Egypt.
Aken- Ferryman of the Underworld
Aker- Guardian and Gatekeeper of the Underworld
Am-Heh - Devourer of Millions
Ament -Greeter of the Dead
Ammit- Devourer of the Wicked
Amun -and Amun-Re The King of the Gods
Anat -Mother of Gods
Andjety- A precursor of Osiris
Anqet- The Embracer, Goddess of Fertility and the Nile at Aswan
Anubis- God of Embalming
Anuke -Goddess of War
Anuket -Goddess of the Nile
Apep The Great Destroyer
Arensnuphis Anthropomorphic Nubian Deity
As Kindly God of the Desert
Astarte, Warrior Goddess of Canaan
Aten The Sun Disk and later God
Atum The All-Father
Auf (Efu Ra) An aspect of the sun god Ra
Baal, God of Thunder
Ba-Pef - The Soul
Babi - The Dominant Male Baboon God
Banebdjetet God of Lower Egypt
Bast Beautiful Cat-Goddess
Bat - Ancient Cow Goddess
Benu (Bennu) - The Bird of Creation
Bes Protector of Childbirth
Dedwen - Nubian God of Resources
Denwen - The Fiery Serpent
The Ennead The Nine Great Osirian Gods
Fetket - The Sun God's Butler
Geb God of the Earth
Gengen Wer - The Great Honker
Hapi God of the Nile River
Hathor Goddess of Music and Dance
Hatmehyt - The Fish Goddess
Haurun, The Victorious Herdsman
Heh and Hauhet Deities of Infinity and Eternity
Heqet Frog Goddess
Heret-Kau - She who is Above the Spirits
Heryshef, Ruler of the Riverbanks
Heset Goddess of Plenty
Hetepes-Sekhus - An Eye of Re
Hike God of Magic and Medicine
Horus King of the Gods on Earth
Hu God of the Spoken Word
Iabet, Cleanser of Re, Personification of the East
Ihy - The Child God
Imhotep Lord of Science and Thought
Ipy (Opet), A Mother of Osiris
Isis Queen of the Gods
Lusaas - Creator Goddess
Kabechet Helper of Anubis
Kek and Kauket, Deities of Darkness, Obscurity and Night
Khenmu The Great Potter
Kherty - Ram-headed God
Kephri The Great Scarab
Khonsu God of the Moon
Maat Lady of Truth and Order
Mafdet Goddess of Scorpions and Snakes
Mahaf - The Ferryman
Mahes The Lord of the Massacre
Male Child Gods of Egypt
Mandulis - The Lower Nubian Sun God
Mehen Defender of the Sun Boat
Mehet-Weret - Cow Goddess of the Sky
Menhit Lion-headed War Goddess
Mertseger Guardian of the Valley of the Kings
Meskhenet - Goddess of Childbrith
Mihos - Son of Bastet
Min God of Fertility
Montu, Warrior and Solar God
Mut Grandmother of the Gods
Nefertem Lord of the Sunrise
Nehebkau, the God who Joined the Ka to the Body
Nekhbet Goddess of the Power of Kings
Neith Goddess of War and Funerals
Nephthys Lady of the Wings
Nun and Naunet Gods of Chaos and Water
Nut Goddess of the Firmament
The Ogdoad The Primordial Creation Gods
Onuris The War God
Osiris Lord of the Dead
Pakhet The Strength of Woman
Panebtawy - The Child God
Peteese and Pihor - Brother Gods
Ptah The Creator
Qadesh - Goddess of Esctasy and Sexual Pleasure
Re (Ra) The Sun God
Renenutet Goddess of the Harvest
Reshep - The Syrian War God
Sah and Sopdet (Sothis) The Astral God and Goddess
Satet Goddess of the Inundation
Satis Guardian of the Borders
Sebiumeker - Meroitic God of Procreation
Sefkhet-Abwy - Goddess of Writing and Temple Libraries
Seker The Resurrected Osiris
Sekhmet The Eye of Ra
Sepa - Centipede God
Serapis the Composit God
Serqet (Selkis) Scorpion Goddess
Seshat Goddess of writing, measurements
Set God of Evil
Shay - Personified Destiny
Shesmetet - Leonine Goddess
Shesmu Demon god of the Win Press
Shu God of the Air and Sky
Sia - The Perceptive Mind
Sobek Guard of the Gods
Sons of Horus Gods of the Viscera and the Canopic Jars
Sopedu - The Border Patrol God
Ta-Bitjet - A Wife of Horus
Tasenetnofret - The Good Sister
Taweret Goddess Demoness of Birth
Tayet - Goddess of Weaving
Tefnut Goddess of Moisture
Tatenen - "Father of Gods" and the God of the Rising Earth
Thoth God of Wisdom
Wadj Wer - The Pregnant God
Wadjet The Serpent Goddess
Weneg - Ancient Son of Re
Wepwawet (Upuaut) The Opener of the Ways
Wosret - Goddess of Thebes
Yah - Another Moon God
Yamm - God of the Sea
RELIGIOUS TEXTS
-Old Kingdom
Pyramid texts from Teti I's pyramid.
This is a collection of rituals and magical texts in hieroglyphs inscribed on the walls of the burial chamber, ante-chamber and other rooms and corridors inside the royal pyramids of the Vth and Vth Dynasties (initiated by Pharaoh Unis). As most of these texts start with the expression "Dd-mdw" or "words to say", egyptologists refer to them as "utterances" or "spells". These nearly thousand spells, ranging in length from a few words to several pages in a modern translation, all belong to one of three categories :
Offering Rituals : to be recited during the presentation of individual offerings, in which the deceased is generally addressed as "Osiris", whereas the offering itself is referred to as the "Eye of Horus". They are short and often contain a "pun" on the name of what is offered. This ritual began with a series of utterances designed to "wpt r" or "open the mouth" of the deceased, so that the mummy could recover its senses and powers in the afterlife before the offerings were presented ;
Resurrection Rituals: these long texts were also to be recited to the deceased and were found in the antechamber and burial chamber. They were intended to release the soul ("ba") from its attachment to the mummy, so that it could begin its daily cycle (at night with the mummy, during the day among the living), though on a different plane of existence, namely as a spirit ("akh") like the gods;
Personal Spells : these line the walls of the other rooms and corridors of the royal tomb, and had to be spoken by the deceased's soul as it made its way through the night toward its rebirth at dawn. Originally in the first person, they were often edited into the third person for each tomb (substituting the name of the deceased for the original first-person pronouns).
Scenes from the tombs of officials show the same kind of rituals being performed as given in the royal Pyramid Texts. Instead of the Offering Ritual, these non-royal tombs often had an "offering list", and the order of these offerings was usually identical to the offerings mentioned in the Pyramid Texts.
-First Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom
Coffin Texts
The Coffin Texts superseded the Pyramid Texts as early as the VIII th Dynasty (First Intermediary Period), but their principal sources are the later cemeteries of the nomarchs of Middle Egypt in the XII th Dynasty. Most of them were written on papyrus or wood coffins in an early form of Middle Egyptian, mostly in cursive hieroglyphs or sometime hieratic.
During the First Intermediate Period, officials began to inscribe Resurrection Rituals and some Personal Spells from the Pyramid Texts on the walls of their own burial chambers and coffins. These were often accompanied by new spells, known as the Coffin Texts, a body of nearly twelve hundred spells. Most are Personal Spells in the first person and meant to give the soul save passage from the tomb to its new spiritual life. In contrast to the Pyramid Texts, these spells employ "vignettes" or illustrations (though only rarely).
These texts also contain a new type of funerary text, the "Books of the Netherworld", or texts providing a description of the various places in the "Duat" or netherworld, along with the words the soul needed to know to pass safely through them. The most elaborate of these guides is known as The Book of Two Ways, illustrated with a map of the regions described. It still lacks the clear arrangement of the later "Books of the Netherworld" like the Amduat and starts the journey of the soul through the hereafter with sunrise (and not, as later, at dusk). These books represented the results of government-funded research into the hereafter !
The Coffin Texts eliminated the royal exclusivity of the Pyramid Texts, for every deceased person had a soul and was an "Osiris NN". The essential content of the Pyramid Texts remained, but new motifs were added: transformation spells (the importance of the scarab beetle), reunion spells, battle spells (against Apophis, the gigantic serpent and enemy of Re) and the Judgment of the Dead. Although the importance of Osiris greatly gained, the celestial afterlife of the Pyramid Texts survived.
-Second Intermediate Period
The Book of the Dead
Funerary texts began to be separated into several distinct corpora. The most important of these was the so-called "Book of the Dead", known to the Egyptians as "prt m hrw" or "coming forth by day", a hundred or so spells of the personal type (called "chapters"), including spells from the earlier literature (Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts). These texts were generally written in cursive hieroglyphs on papyrus with vignettes.
This text primarily served the purposes of provisioning and protecting the deceased. The general Judgment of the Dead, to which every deceased is subject, played an important part.
4. The Netherworld guides : the Amduat, Book of Gates, Book of Caverns, etc.
The Book of the Two Ways of the Coffin Texts, gave rise to several New Kingdom royal netherworld guides. The netherworld was divided into twelve separate sections (cf. the hours of the night). They were written in Middle Egyptian. The mystery of the nocturnal rejuvenation of Re in his nightly journey (in the Book of Caverns, first appearing in the Osireion, as Osiris) was their focus. In the Amduat and the Book of Gates, the battle with Apophis is prominent and follows the moment Re has been rekindled (in the Sixth Hour of the night).
5. Special compositions: Mouth-Opening Ritual, Litany of Re, Book of the Heavenly Cow
From the earlier ritual texts found in the Pyramid Texts, the New Kingdom composed 75 "acts" in which priests "open the mouth" of a statue of the deceased, providing it with offerings. They preform the ritualists. In the Litany of Re, a description and a praise of that deity is given. He descends into the netherworld, renews life, cares for the blessed and punished the damned. The central motif of the Book of the Heavenly Cow is Re's withdrawal to the sky because of the rebellion of humankind against him.
RELIGIOUS BELIEFS
Pre-dynastic Egypt had formulated the ideas and beliefs of a "greater being", which was expressed in pictures, but some scholars suggest that "writing" was invented in order to communicate spiritual thoughts to the masses. Now the pictures had ideas, and took on human traits. The gods lived, died, hunted, went into battle, gave birth, ate, drank, and had human emotions. The gods’ reigns overlapped, and, in some instances, merged. There was no organized hierarchy structure of their reign. The dominance of the gods depended on the beliefs of the reigning king. Their area of dominance depended on where the king wanted his capital.
Likewise, the myths changed with the location of the gods, as did their names. Names in ancient Egypt were very mystic and powerful. It was thought that if you inscribed your enemies' name on something, then broke it, that enemy would either be afflicted, or possibly die. If you knew a name you had power. In the same respect, using a name could be beneficial. Each god had five names, and each was associated with an element, such as air, with celestial bodies, or were a descriptive statement about the god, such as strong, virile or majestic.
Herodotus tells us that the Egyptians "are religious to a higher degree than any other people"
Like the members of any other human culture, the ancient Egyptians were driven to find meaning in existence, but there were also other influences on their religion, such as the need to justify kingship, among others.
The spiritual world that was created by the ancient Egyptians was a richly fascinating one which remains unique in the history of human religion, but at the same time, somehow familiar in many ways. The character of that spiritual world was both mysterious and manifest, at once accessible and hidden, for although Egyptian religion was often shrouded in layers of myth and ritual, it nevertheless permeated the ancient civilization of the Nile and ultimately shaped, sustained and directed Egyptian culture in almost every way.
One thing that does seem familiar about their ancient religion was that people were very concerned about the afterlife. Furthermore, in order to avoid being counted among the damned of the afterlife, one had to not only venerate the Egyptian gods, but also live by a code of standards that would be judged after death.
The Pharaoh represented Egypt before the gods, and it is he who is depicted most often worshiping them while standing, kneeling or even crawling. In making offerings to the gods, the Pharaoh’s attempts to secure order, or Ma'at, which is compulsory for gods as well as Pharaohs.
The Pharaoh was the single link between the divine and the profane, as well as the representative of the gods on Earth. There were some gods and goddesses that were more important and prominent than others. Here are some of the more important ones:
RELIGIOUS PRACTICES
Ancient Egyptian religion was a complex system of polytheistic beliefs and rituals which were an integral part of ancient Egyptian society. It centered on the Egyptians' interaction with a multitude of deities who were believed to be present in, and in control of, the forces and elements of nature. The myths about these gods were meant to explain the origins and behavior of the forces they represented. The practices of Egyptian religion were efforts to provide for the gods and gain their favor.
Formal religious practice centered on the pharaoh, the king of Egypt. Although he was a human, the pharaoh was believed to be descended from the gods. He acted as the intermediary between his people and the gods, and was obligated to sustain the gods through rituals and offerings so that they could maintain order in the universe. Therefore, the state dedicated enormous resources to the performance of these rituals and to the construction of the temples where they were carried out. Individuals could also interact with the gods for their own purposes, appealing for their help through prayer or compelling them to act through magic. These popular religious practices were distinct from, but closely linked with, the formal rituals and institutions. The popular religious tradition grew more prominent in the course of Egyptian history as the status of the pharaoh declined. Another important aspect of the religion was the belief in the afterlife and funerary practices. The Egyptians made great efforts to ensure the survival of their souls after death, providing tombs, grave goods, and offerings to preserve the bodies and spirits of the deceased.
The religion had its roots in Egypt's prehistory and lasted for more than 3,000 years. The details of religious belief changed over time as the importance of particular gods rose and declined, and their intricate relationships shifted. At various times certain gods became preeminent over the others, including the sun god Ra, the creator god Amun, and the mother goddess Isis. For a brief period, in the aberrant theology promulgated by the pharaoh Akhenaten, a single god, the Aten, replaced the traditional pantheon. Yet the overall system endured, even through several periods of foreign rule, until the coming of Christianity in the early centuries AD. It left behind numerous religious writings and monuments, along with significant influences on cultures both ancient and modern.
The beliefs and rituals now referred to as "Ancient Egyptian religion" existed within every aspect of Egyptian culture. Indeed, their language possessed no single term corresponding to the modern European concept of religion. Ancient Egyptian religion was not a monolithic institution, but consisted of a vast and varying set of beliefs and practices, linked by their common focus on the interaction between the world of humans and the world of the divine. The characteristics of the gods who populated the divine realm were inextricably linked to the Egyptians' understanding of the properties of the world in which they lived.
The Egyptians believed that the phenomena of nature were divine forces in and of themselves. These deified forces included the elements, animal characteristics, or abstract forces. The Egyptians believed in a pantheon of gods, which were involved in all aspects of nature and human society. Their religious practices were efforts to sustain and placate these phenomena and turn them to human advantage. This polytheistic system was very complex, as some deities were believed to exist in many different manifestations, and some had multiple mythological roles. Conversely, many natural forces, such as the sun, were associated with multiple deities. The diverse pantheon ranged from gods with vital roles in the universe to minor deities or "demons" with very limited or localized functions. It could include gods adopted from foreign cultures, and sometimes even humans: deceased pharaohs were believed to be divine, and occasionally, distinguished commoners such as Imhotep also became deified.
Many gods were associated with particular regions in Egypt where their cults were most important. However, these associations changed over time, and they did not necessarily mean that the god associated with a place had originated there. For instance, the god Monthu was the original patron of the city of Thebes. Over the course of the Middle Kingdom, however, he was displaced in that role by Amun, who may have arisen elsewhere. The national popularity and importance of individual gods fluctuated in a similar way.
The Egyptian conception of the universe centered on Ma'at, a word that encompasses several concepts in English, including "truth," "justice," and "order." It was the fixed, eternal order of the universe, both in the cosmos and in human society. It had existed since the creation of the world, and without it the world would lose its cohesion. In Egyptian belief, Ma'at was constantly under threat from the forces of disorder, so all of society was required to maintain it.
On the human level this meant that all members of society should cooperate and coexist; on the cosmic level it meant that all of the forces of nature - the gods - should continue to function in balance. This latter goal was central to Egyptian religion. The Egyptians sought to maintain Ma'at in the cosmos by sustaining the gods through offerings and by performing rituals which staved off disorder and perpetuated the cycles of nature.
The most important part of the Egyptian view of the cosmos was the conception of time, which was greatly concerned with the maintenance of Ma'at. Throughout the linear passage of time, a cyclical pattern recurred, in which Ma'at was renewed by periodic events which echoed the original creation. Among these events were the annual Nile flood and the succession from one king to another, but the most important was the daily journey of the sun god Ra.
When envisioning the shape of the cosmos, the Egyptians saw the earth as a flat expanse of land, personified by the god Geb, over which arched the sky goddess Nut. The two were separated by Shu, the god of air. Beneath the earth lay a parallel underworld and undersky, and beyond the skies lay the infinite expanse of Nu, the chaos that had existed before creation. The Egyptians also believed in a place called the Duat, a mysterious region associated with death and rebirth, that may have lain in the underworld or in the sky. Each day, Ra traveled over the earth across the underside of the sky, and at night he passed through the Duat to be reborn at dawn.
In Egyptian belief, this cosmos was inhabited by three types of sentient beings. One was the gods; another was the spirits of deceased humans, who existed in the divine realm and possessed many of the gods' abilities. Living humans were the third category, and the most important among them was the pharaoh, who bridged the human and divine realms.
The procedures for religious rituals were frequently written on papyri, which were used as instructions for those performing the ritual. These ritual texts were kept mainly in the temple libraries. Temples themselves are also inscribed with such texts, often accompanied by illustrations. Unlike the ritual papyri, these inscriptions were not intended as instructions, but were meant to symbolically perpetuate the rituals even if, in reality, people ceased to perform them. Magical texts likewise describe rituals, although these rituals were part of the spells used for specific goals in everyday life. Despite their mundane purpose, many of these texts also originated in temple libraries and later became disseminated among the general populace.
HOLIDAYS
Feasts and festivals played an important part in Egyptian life. In every age, there were new feasts to be celebrated. In the Pharaonic and Greco-Roman ages, there was a particular feast for every god, in which clergymen carried a statue of the god in a great procession that all people attended and at which clowns, singers, and dancers performed. Theatrical plays depicting myths were also performed. Celebrations for friendly gods such as Bes were held by the people rather than the priests. On the day of Bes, no work was done on the pyramid and people would parade down the street dressed in masks of Bes, while dancers and tambourine players followed. The townspeople joined in the singing from their rooftops, while the children would run along beside the dancers singing and clapping their hands. The whole town enjoyed the festival and feast.
Other occasions were New Year's Day and various feasts for the beginning of the seasons. There was the feast of flood tide that is known in the modern age as Nile Flood Day. In addition, there is the feast of spring, which is currently called Sham El-Nassem. Egyptians still celebrate these two feasts.
HEAVEN AND HELL
One of the more famous aspects of the Egyptian religious beliefs was their ideas of the afterlife. They believed the physical body had to be preserved to allow a place for their spirit to dwell in the afterlife. Because of this, mummification was performed to preserve the body. In addition, large pyramids were constructed as tombs for the pharaohs in the Old Kingdom. Later, rock cut tombs were used to bury the pharaohs.
They thought that people had two important parts: a "ka", or life force that they only had while alive, and a "ba" which was more like a soul. If the "ka" and "ba" could be united in the afterworld the person would live in the afterlife. A key component was that the body be preserved for this to happen. This is why the Egyptians used the embalming process, or mummification, to preserve the dead.
The ancient Egyptians believed in a distinct process which the ba would undergo was generally as follows:
-After the burial, the deceased began a long journey through the underworld. The deceased was led by Anubis, the god of the dead, in what is called the Hall of Two Truths.
- At one end was Osiris, seated on a throne and accompanied by other deities, and 42 judges.
-At the center of the room was placed the balance, whose axis was measured carefully by Thoth, the god of the scribes, on which was weighed on the heart of the deceased.
-In front of the deity and the courts, the deceased had to pronounce a negative confession: his declaration of innocence. The deceased was utter a formulaic statement indicating that he had not caused harm to others.
-His heart was then placed on the scale and measured against a feather. If the plate on which lay the heart sat, was tilted more than that on which lay the feather, symbol of justice, the deceased would be devoured by Amit, a monster half lion and half hippopotamus.
-Otherwise, the deceased could enter the kingdom of Osiris and thereby attain the fields of IARU, a kind of paradise, where Ushabti, little men purpose-built from timber, would work to meet its needs.
But before he or she reached this pleasant goal, the soul of the deceased had to make a long journey. On the boat of the god Ra, the deceased had to cross a lake of fire, guarded by four baboons, face crocodiles, snakes and the evil Apophis, the gigantic monster condemned forever to threaten the sinking of the boat of Ra. The only help for the deceased were the amulets and formulas posed by priests during mummification.
SOCIAL ORDER
PHARAOH
The Ancient Egyptian Government was ruled first and foremost by the Pharaoh. The Pharaoh was the supreme leader not only of the government, but also of the religion. However, the Pharaoh couldn't run the government all by himself, so he had a hierarchy of rulers and leaders below him who ran different aspects of the government.
PHARAOH’s WIVES
The wives of the Pharaohs were the second most powerful people in the land after the Pharaohs.
Vizier
The Primary leader of the Government under the Pharaoh was the Vizier. The vizier was the Chief Overseer of the land, sort of like a Prime Minister. All the other officials reported into the vizier. Perhaps the most famous vizier was the first one, Imhotep. Imhotep architected the first pyramid and was later made into a god.The Egyptian law stated that the vizier was to 1) act by the law 2) judge fairly and 3) not act willfully or headstrong.
Nomarks
Under the vizier were local governors called Nomarks. Nomarks ruled over an area of land called a nome. A nome was like a state or province. Nomarks were sometimes appointed by the Pharaoh, while at other times the position of nomark would be hereditary and handed down from father to son.
Other Officials
Other officials that reported into Pharaoh were the army commander, the chief treasurer, and the minister of public works. These officials each had different responsibilities and powers, but Pharaoh had the final say. Many of the Pharaoh's officials were priests and scribes.
SCRIBES
Scribes were important to the government as they kept track of the finances and recorded taxes and the census. Overseers of the land were also appointed to keep track of the farmers and to make sure they were doing their jobs.
Monarchy
The average person had no say in the government. However, because Pharaoh was considered a god, and the people's representative to the gods, they often accepted the Pharaoh as their supreme leader without complaint.
Kenbet
In the New Kingdom, court cases were ruled by a local council of elders called a Kenbet. Pharaohs would hold court for his top officials and high priests. People would approach him and kiss the ground at his feet. They did not have a complicated set of laws and statutes. In many cases the judges were to rule using common sense in an effort to come to an agreement.
CITIZENS
Citizens had to pay taxes to support the government.
INITIATION
There were many degrees of Initiation and many levels of Priesthoods as all things have hierarchies. Some/many were elaborate, but are too numerous to list. Some priests were born into families of Priests or Priestesses and assumed the destiny of the family bloodline when their predecessors got close to death. A Priest or Priest could select their successor. As this would not be an easy journey one had to choose carefully.
Secrets were told within the families about the mystery teachings and the Rites of Passages of Initiation. One usually became a Priest or Priestess after a long course of study, fasting, ritual, and a lifetime of dedication. Remember, the life span in ancient Egypt was not long, the souls of many Priests often reincarnating again and again keep the sacred knowledge within certain bloodlines. To this very day, many people still have the ability to access that information as they were there.
Priests would study for many years to achieve the highest level of spiritual accomplishment they were meant to attain. They would forfeit all personal goals and belongings living a life of semi-solitude and worship of the Gods and Goddesses of Egypt. For the most part they were men, but there were High Priestesses.
As with priests today, many initiates did not marry nor have families. Some were said to have mated with the gods during an Initiation, producing offspring with unique abilities.There were Brotherhoods - most notably the Great White Brotherhood - that some believe exist to this very day.
PURPOSE OF LIFE
Ancient Egyptians believed the purpose of life was to nourish the seeds of the divine within us all. They thought if a person or god is successful in this and passes the test of the Tuat, or Underworld, and the Weighing of the Heart, the reward is eternal life with the gods.The ancient Egyptians were obsessed with death and the afterlife.
They believed that a person cannot succeed in life without conscious application of the metaphysical faculty (the mind symbolized by the heart) with the physical faculty (action symbolized by the tongue). If a person failed in his or her life, that is, if their actions were not harmonious with nature, they would reincarnate to earth in order to try again, after being evaluated by Anubis and Thoth in Tuat. A person did not meet Osiris unless he or she had proven him/herself by passing this test as being in harmony with Maat, or order and justice
CONCLUSION
Ancient Egyptian religion has had profound effects on modern day religions. Much greater than most people recognize.
The following are a few similarities, as they relate to the theological principles and practices, between Ancient Egypt and the Bible:
Egyptologist Sir E. A. Wallis Budge wrote:
"The new religion (Christianity) which was preached there by St. Mark and his immediate followers, in all essentials so closely resembled that which was the outcome of the worship of Osiris, Isis, and Horus that popular opposition was entirely disarmed."
The similarities between the life of Jesus, ( who lived in Egypt for a time as a small child with his family and whose home was not far from Egypt) as told in the Bible (written by Jews whose ancestors had spent four generations in Egypt until being freed by Moses), are very coincidental to the life of certain Egyptian gods .
Below is a short general synopsis of the life of Horus:
Now compare the life of Osiris :
Many elements of the Auset (Isis) myth and the story of the Virgin Mary are very similar, for both were able to conceive without the male impregnation. Heru (Horus) was conceived and born after the death of Auset's husband, namely Ausar (Osiris), and as such, she was revered as the Virgin Mother.
The spheres of angels and archangels in Christianity are strikingly similar to Ancient Egypt’s heirachy of neteru (gods/goddesses). The Song of Moses in Deuteronomy (32:43), as found in a cave at Qumran near the Dead Sea, mentions the word gods in the plural: “Rejoice, O heavens, with him; and do obeisance to him, ye gods.” When the passage is quoted in the New Testament (Hebrews, 1:6), the word gods is substituted with angels of God. As such, The neteru who were called gods by some, were endorsed and incorporated into Christianity under a new name, angels.
Various fishing nets and traps are portrayed on the walls of the Ancient Egyptian tombs.In other texts, Heru (Horus) becomes a fisherman and his four disciples ("sons") also fish for him. This is another parallel between Christian and Egyptian symbolism. Christ used the symbolism several times and he made his disciples Fishers of men.
The most distinctive Egyptian symbol is the eye, which plays many complex and subtle roles.The eye is the part of the body able to perceive the light, and is therefore a symbol for the ritual ability.
The Egyptian word for paper was pa-pe-ra. The Greeks called it papyrus. One can easily see that the English word, paper, came from the Egyptian pa-pe-ra. A dictionary will also confirm that the word Bible is of an Egyptian origin. The Bible, or book, was derived from byblos, which is an Egyptian word for papyrus.
There are many Egyptian texts that have notable parallels in the Bible, and outstanding among them is the hymn composed in honor of the Aton by Akhenaton, and Psalm 104. They are both amazingly similar in all particulars, sequence and images.
The thirty chapters of the Teaching of Amenemope (Amenhotep III) contain many wisdom texts which were later adopted in the Old Testament’s Book of Proverbs. Numerous verbal parallels occur between this Egyptian text and the Bible, such as the opening lines of the first chapter:
The Egyptian Book of the Coming Forth by Day (commonly known as the Book of the Dead), the oldest written text in the world, contains a strikingly parallel passage,
I am the Eternal, I am Ra ... I am that which created the Word ... I am the Word ...
St, John’s Gospel begins,
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.
A new unproven , but very interesting and seemingly credible, theory proposes that Moses was actually the Pharaoh Akhenaten (who was known before the fifth year of his seventeen year reign as Amenhotep IV) .It proposes that hundreds of years before his birth there was a minor Exodus from Egypt by some Egyptians who subsequently formed the country of Israel (which name means: Is=Here is, ra= Egyptian name for God, and el= Jewish name for G-d, all together meaning “Here (or in this place) is the Egyptian and Jewish God”). Today Christians and Jews end most prayers with the word “Amen” , which is an Egyptian name which comes from the name “Amen-Ra” who was the king of the Egyptian Gods.
Akhenaten was the first monotheistic Pharaoh. He threw out many of the old deities that had been around for thousands of years, which angered many Egyptians. Eventually there was an uprising and he was deposed as Pharaoh and was banished from Egypt with his followers into the desert . His wife, Nefertiti, was named the new Pharaoh and was known as Smenkhare. She ruled a few years and was replaced by one of the Pharaoh’s sons by another wife, Tutankhamen.
In his 70’s Akhenaten came back to Egypt to attempt to re-establish his monotheistic religion but was unsuccessful and retreated back into the desert with his followers .Eventually, after wandering the desert, he returned to Israel. His body, and that of Nefertiti have never been found .Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon, who discovered the tomb of Tutankhamen, are said to have found some hidden scrolls in the tomb which were then permanently secreted away and which described this story of Moses.The name ‘Moses” in Egyptian means “of the house of Pharaoh”.
Finally, in the three religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, whenever the faithful pray, regardless of language, they always end their prayer by saying Amen. There is no linguistic translation for Amen, because it is a name and not a word. The origin of Amen is Egyptian, for Amen was the Egyptian name for God.
****
We can also learn from the ancient Egyptian religion that all religions go through a cycle of birth, flourishing and finally- death. What happened with the ancient Egyptian religion (like many other ancient religions) is likely to also happen with all modern religions. The “Law of Cycles” exist everywhere in the Universe and there is no reason to expect anything different for religion. History has confirmed that to be true.
Nevertheless, whatever “new” appears will likely contain elements of the “old” that preceded it, this too history teaches us.
Scott Ramsey November 3, 2015.
.
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIGION
OVERVIEW
The civilization of Ancient Egypt lasted longer than the entire span of what we have come to accept as “recorded history”; over three thousand years. During these millennia the Egyptians developed a multitude of gods and goddesses, as well as esoteric practices of which we are still unravelling their meaning . Besides this, Egypt was the source of the first true monotheistic religion, under the pharaoh Akhenaton. This rich tradition was mostly unknown until the early nineteenth century, when the Egyptian language was finally deciphered.
Many books have been written on religion in ancient Egypt. This brief overview is meant only to explain some of the basic concepts and to introduce some of the gods. Religion in ancient Egypt was not unlike modern times. Today, not everyone believes in the same way, or of the same god. Egypt was no different. Individual Pharaohs worshiped their own gods, as did the workers, priests, merchants and peasants.
****
Egypt has a long history and to understand the diversity of Egyptian religion one must first have a basic understanding of the general history of Egypt. The amazing and mysterious civilization lasted from around 3200 BCE until about 525 BCE before outsiders completely conquered them. Even then, vestiges of the Egyptian religion were still practiced in places until about the 4th Century AD, a remarkably long time.
Traces of ancient beliefs remained in Egyptian folk traditions into modern times, but its impact on modern societies greatly increased with the French Campaign in Egypt and Syria in 1798. As a result of it, Westerners began to study Egyptian beliefs firsthand, and Egyptian religious motifs were adopted into Western art. Egyptian religion has since had a significant impact on popular culture. Due to continued interest in Egyptian belief, in the late 20th century several new religious groups formed based on different reconstructions of ancient Egyptian religion.
****
Archaeologists divide ancient Egypt's history into three big blocks of time. In each block of time, all pharaohs behaved in a certain way. These blocks of time were called "Kingdoms". Scientists named these blocks the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom.
-1. During the Old Kingdom, pharaohs were buried in pyramids.
-2. During the Middle Kingdom, pharaohs were buried in hidden tombs all over the place.
-3. During the New Kingdom, pharaohs were all buried in hidden tombs in the same geographical area known as the Valley of the
Kings.
A slightly more detailed history of Egypt is as follows:
- Starting around 5500 BCE two major kingdoms developed along the Nile. Historians call them Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. Around 3200 BCE, Egypt was brought together under one ruler—King Narmer (sometimes called Menes). This is recognized as the beginning of the Egyptian civilization.
- The Early Dynastic period began with the unification of Egypt around 3000 BC;
- The Old Kingdom is most commonly regarded as spanning the period of time when Egypt was ruled by the Third Dynasty through to the Sixth Dynasty (2686–2134 BC).
- In the 22nd century BC, the Old Kingdom collapsed into the disorder of the First Intermediate Period
- Eventually rulers from Thebes reunified the Egyptian nation in the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BC).
- The Middle Kingdom crumbled in the Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650–1550 BC)
- The New Kingdom, also referred to as the Egyptian Empire, is the period in ancient Egyptian history between the 16th century BC and the 11th century BC, covering the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth Dynasties of Egypt. (Religious order was disrupted during this time when Akhenaten acceded, and replaced Amun with the Aten as the state god.)
- Under the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties (1292–1069 BC) is also known as the Ramesside period, after the eleven pharaohs that took the name of Ramesses.
- Third Intermediate Period began after the death of Ramesses XI when his successor, Smendes, ruled from the city of Tanis in the north, while the High Priests of Amun at Thebes had effective rule of the south of the country.
- In the 4th century BC, Egypt became a Hellenistic (Greek) kingdom under the Ptolemaic dynasty (305–30 BC). Starting with Ptolemy, a general of Alexander the Great, which assumed the pharaonic role, maintaining the traditional religion and building or rebuilding many temples. The kingdom's Greek ruling class identified the Egyptian deities with their own .
- In the 1st millennium BC, Egypt was significantly weaker than in earlier times, and in several periods foreigners seized the country and assumed the position of pharaoh. Isis grew more popular as a goddess of protection, magic, and personal salvation, and became the most important goddess in Egypt.
- Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30 BC. In Egypt itself, as the empire weakened, official temples fell into decay, and without their centralizing influence religious practice became fragmented and localized.The Pharaoh line ended with the death of Cleopatra.
- Meanwhile, Christianity spread across Egypt, and in the third and fourth centuries AD, edicts by Christian emperors and iconoclasm by local Christians eroded traditional beliefs. While it persisted among the populace for some time, Egyptian religion slowly faded away.
The some of the major Gods of ancient Egypt were:
-Ra - Ra was the sun god and the most important god to the Ancient Egyptians. Ra was drawn as a man with a hawk head and a headdress with a sun disk. At one point Ra was combined with another god Amun and the two made an even more powerful god, Amun-Ra. Ra was said to have created all forms of life and was the supreme ruler of the gods.
-Isis - Isis was the mother goddess. It was thought that she would protect and help people in need. She was drawn as a woman with a headdress in the shape of a throne.
-Osiris - Osiris was ruler of the underworld and god of the dead. He was the husband of Isis and father of Horus. Osiris was drawn as a mummified man with a feathered headdress.
-Horus - Horus was the god of the sky. Horus was the son of Isis and Osiris. He was drawn as a man with the head of a hawk. The ruler of the Egyptians, Pharaoh, was thought to be the living version Horus. In this way Pharaoh was the leader of the Egyptian religion and the people's representative to the gods.
-Thoth -The moon. Thoth was the god of knowledge. He blessed the Egyptians with writing, medicine, and mathematics. He was also god of the moon. Thoth is drawn as a man with an Ibis bird head. Sometimes he was represented as a baboon.
-Aten- The creator of all things was either Re, Amun, Ptah, Khnum or Aten, depending on which version of the myth was currently in use.Was initially not actually a god, but was the actual shape of the sun, the disk (or, aten), was later deified into Egypt's only monotheistic god.
-Seth- Storms, evil and confusion.
-Ma'at, who represented balance, justice and truth. He was the counterpart of Seth.
For reference, there was a group of nine principal Gods in Egyptian mythology that were worshiped at Heliopolis. They were:
- The sun god Atum (a/k/a Ra);
- his children Shu (a/k/a Thoth) and Tefnut;
- their children Geb and Nut and
- their children Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys.
- Sometimes also included is the son of Osiris and Isis, Horus.
The depictions of the gods in art were not meant as literal representations of how the gods might appear if they were visible, as the gods' true natures were believed to be mysterious. Instead, these depictions gave recognizable forms to the abstract deities by using symbolic imagery to indicate each god's role in nature . similar as to how we might use an emoji today to indicate mood.. Thus, for example, the funerary god Anubis was portrayed as a jackal, a creature whose scavenging habits threatened the preservation of the body, in an effort to counter this threat and employ it for protection. His black skin was symbolic of the color of mummified flesh and the fertile black soil that Egyptians saw as a symbol of resurrection. However, this iconography was not fixed, and many of the gods could be depicted in more than one form.
*****
One thing that does seem familiar about their ancient religion was that people were very concerned about the afterlife. Furthermore, in order to avoid being counted among the damned of the afterlife, one had to not only venerate the Egyptian gods, but also live by a code of standards that would be judged after death and have ones body embalmed.
The Pharaoh represented Egypt before the gods, and it is he who is depicted most often worshiping them while standing, kneeling or even crawling. In making offerings to the gods, the Pharaoh’s attempts to secure order, or Ma'at, which is compulsory for gods as well as Pharaohs.
CENTRAL ORGANIZATION
Directly under the Pharaoh were the priests. Their duty was to take care of the images of the gods. They also prepared the statues, or images, for the religious festivals. It was the priests’ role to read the scrolls before religious events. In later dynasties the priests were the voices of the oracles. Special compartments, called priest holes, were strategically placed inside the temple. The priests were able to speak from these holes unseen by the person asking questions or favors of the gods.
Oracles were considered the pinnacle of the decision of the gods. The priests were in charge of the temple riches and granaries. They were on a rotation schedule and might work officially one week out of the month. Their laboratories were in the temples, where they prepared incense and healing potions. What we think of as wizards originated with the priests. Shrouded in mystery, they were seldom seen by the common people unless they were reading magical texts or performing religious rituals.
CREATIONIST BELIEF
To understand the Egyptian- Myth of Creation, one must first understand that it is a complicated story. Four "cosmologies," or theories about creation are involved, each developing over different periods in ancient Egypt. There are some common elements to each theory. For example, each theory holds that in the beginning, only a primordial, stagnant ocean called Nu existed. In addition, the four theories agree that out of Nu, rose the primeval hill. Each cosmology believed it was their temple that stood on this hill. The first step-pyramids are thought to be symbolic of this mound. All cosmologies share the belief that creation was a slow process, not catastrophic. Finally, they also all agree that there was a "First Time," or a time period when the gods actually lived on earth.
With this foundation, the Heliopolitan cosmogony develops the myth further. The first event was the creation of Atum, the god of Heliopolis. There is dispute over whether he created himself, or was the son of Nu. Some texts say he first appeared over the hill, others say he was, himself, the hill. Eventually, Atum became associated with Ra, the sun-god. Ra-Atum at this point is said to be the coming of the light to disperse the darkness of Nu. Ra-Atum is symbolized by the Phoenix in this context. His next task was to create other gods. He did this by masturbation, not having a mate. This was not offensive to ancient Egyptians, but in fact intensified his power in their minds.
Ra-Atum gave birth to twins. Shu, his son and god of the air, was spit out, and his daughter, Tefnut, goddess of world order was vomited out by Ra-Atum. The Twins were raised by Nu and supervised by Ra-Atum's eye. Shu and Tefnut gave birth to Geb, god of the earth, and his wife and sister, Nut, goddess of the sky. Geb and Nut, in turn, were the parents of Isis, Osiris, Nephthys, and Set. These four gods, especially Osiris play a major role in later myths. Horus, another god was the son of Isis and Osiris. These five younger gods and goddesses may have been incorporated by the priests of Heliopolis. Whatever the case, this "Ennead," or grouping of gods, were very much a part of tradition during this time.
From here, the order of dominance or precedence becomes contradictory. Some text place Horus in a very high position, others give the right to Nut. Still others claim that Atum placed Geb over the Ennead, which included himself. The priests during this period believed themselves to represent Geb and Nut, not Atum. Eventually, it is Ra, the sun-god, who is considered supreme. However, Osiris later assumes this role.
Later, in 3100 B.C., Upper and Lower Egypt were joined and the capital became Memphis. This began a new theory of creation. Ptah, the high god of Memphis was deemed creator. At some point Ptah was even declared to be Nu (thus placed above Atum, high god of Heliopolis). The Ennead of Heliopolis was said to be merely a manifestation of Ptah. This displacement of Heliopolitan cosmogony was necessary to establish and maintain the Memphite superiority.
Yet another cosmogony existed which was quite different from that of Heliopolis and Memphis. This was in a city in Upper Egypt called Hermopolis. It was said that this theory came before any other. Instead of an Ennead, Hermopolitans had a group of eight gods called an Ogdoad. This group consisted of Nun and Naunet, Huh and Hauhet, Kuk and Kauket, and Amon and Amaunet. According to this theory, these eight gods were responsible for creating the world. After this was done, the eight ruled the world during a time called the Golden Age. When they died, they went to the underworld, from where they still had power to make the Nile flow and the sun to rise. Nun and Naunet symbolize water, Huh and Hauhet represent "unendingness," Kuk and Kauket signify darkness, and Amon and Amaunet symbolize the air.
Finally, in Thebes during the New Kingdom time from 1546-1085 B.C., a new cosmogony arose. At this time, all the other theories were widely accepted; therefore, it was essential that the Thebans incorporate the main features of these theories into their own. The chief god of Thebes was Amon, who was already associated with the air. This made it a simple task to also instill in Amon the power of the "supreme and invisible creator (Ames, 1965)." It was said that he created himself, having no father or mother, and was born in secret. Thebans claimed their city was the first city, and that all other cities were modeled after it. All of the cosmogonies claimed this. Thebans claimed that Thebes was the Eye of Ra, son of Amon. Going beyond what had been done in the past, Thebans claimed that entire cosmogonies were merely aspects of Amon; merely forms of him.
It is important to note that each translation of ancient Egyptian text renders its own perspective on what is being said. There are many inconsistencies in each account. Therefore, it is a very complicated and difficult task to summarize the myth of creation, or any myth, for that matter. From source to source, the names of the gods differ; even spellings differ. Here we attempt to give a brief outline or a basic knowledge of Egyptian mythology.
Another mythological symbol associated with the Creation Myth is the Phoenix. The Phoenix was said to travel from Arabia to Heliopolis once every five hundred years. The cycles of time were said to be set by the Phoenix, also known as the Benu bird, and the temple of the Phoenix became the "centre of calendrical regulation (Clark, 1960)." During the Middle Kingdom, it became the soul of Osiris and it was also at this time that it became associated with the planet Venus, the morning star, which was said to be the suns guide. All of the above representations were minor associations, however. The Phoenixs main role was as the one who created himself, thus symbolizing Ra-Atum.
Common to all cosmogonies of creation is the temple. Each theory places its temple on the hill rising up from Nu. Myths concerning the form, origin and significance are mostly Memphite in origin; myths about the daily temple rituals are primarily Heliopolitan in nature. One such temple, and possibly the earliest described in myth, was that of the Falcon, associated with the god Horus who was the hunters god, maybe a war god, and later, a sky god. Thus, the Falcon was a symbol of majesty and power, and the model for the pharaohs. According to myth, this temples erection was a natural event and signified the final event in the process of creation. It started out as a shelter for the Falcons perch and this portion remained the most sacred place in the temple. The detail in which the temple is described exemplifies the high level of development that was reached even before historic times. Many temples like this were constructed in pre-dynastic Egypt, most likely.
The temple of the sun-god was the second type of temple built. This began as one rectangular structure or sanctuary. Other chambers were added, and a wall surrounded the structure. Some research shows that there was another type of temple of the sun-god that consisted of one sanctuary only. This temple signifies the beginning of the history of the actual temple physically built in Egypt.
Myth has it that the above temples descended from one primeval temple that was built to shelter the successor of the creator. This temple is said to have stood on the hill rising up from Nu, as did every other temple described in the various cosmogonies. However, this was a living temple, the body of the god of the temple, who took his physical form using the temple.
VISION OF GOD
Consistently, from the beginning of Egyptian religion to its final stand at the Temple of Philae, most scholars agree that the religion was polytheistic. Even during the 18th Dynasty reign of Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) , he tried to introduce and promote a single god, the Aten, Egyptian religion cannot be said to have been monotheistic, for while the king himself, during his 17 year reign, may have worshiped a single god, and even that is uncertain, his religion never caught on and for the most part, Egyptians in general continued to worship their traditional gods.Akhen. Akhenaten wrote a poem 14 centuries before Christ that is almost word for word similar to the 28th Psalm in the Bible (The Lord is my Shepard , I shall not want. He maketh me to lie down in green pastures,etc)
The situation with gods is further complicated by syncretism and other forms of combining them. The term "syncretism" has a special meaning in Egyptology, referring to the combination or merging of aspects of one god in another. This feature first appeared in the 4th Dynasty with Atum-Re of Heliopolis and by Middle Kingdom, there were many such combinations. It has been shown that this was probably a temporary fusion of gods, each keeping their own characteristics.
DENOMINATIONS
Like many modern religions, certain gods (saints, deities) were worshiped in different areas.s stated above, certain gods were worshiped in different areas. Local cities or villages, known as nomes, often had unique gods that were known only to that region. On occasion, these gods attained country -wide recognition and became the myths and legends that were passed on from century to century. Below is a listing of the main gods of the many gods of Egypt.
Aken- Ferryman of the Underworld
Aker- Guardian and Gatekeeper of the Underworld
Am-Heh - Devourer of Millions
Ament -Greeter of the Dead
Ammit- Devourer of the Wicked
Amun -and Amun-Re The King of the Gods
Anat -Mother of Gods
Andjety- A precursor of Osiris
Anqet- The Embracer, Goddess of Fertility and the Nile at Aswan
Anubis- God of Embalming
Anuke -Goddess of War
Anuket -Goddess of the Nile
Apep The Great Destroyer
Arensnuphis Anthropomorphic Nubian Deity
As Kindly God of the Desert
Astarte, Warrior Goddess of Canaan
Aten The Sun Disk and later God
Atum The All-Father
Auf (Efu Ra) An aspect of the sun god Ra
Baal, God of Thunder
Ba-Pef - The Soul
Babi - The Dominant Male Baboon God
Banebdjetet God of Lower Egypt
Bast Beautiful Cat-Goddess
Bat - Ancient Cow Goddess
Benu (Bennu) - The Bird of Creation
Bes Protector of Childbirth
Dedwen - Nubian God of Resources
Denwen - The Fiery Serpent
The Ennead The Nine Great Osirian Gods
Fetket - The Sun God's Butler
Geb God of the Earth
Gengen Wer - The Great Honker
Hapi God of the Nile River
Hathor Goddess of Music and Dance
Hatmehyt - The Fish Goddess
Haurun, The Victorious Herdsman
Heh and Hauhet Deities of Infinity and Eternity
Heqet Frog Goddess
Heret-Kau - She who is Above the Spirits
Heryshef, Ruler of the Riverbanks
Heset Goddess of Plenty
Hetepes-Sekhus - An Eye of Re
Hike God of Magic and Medicine
Horus King of the Gods on Earth
Hu God of the Spoken Word
Iabet, Cleanser of Re, Personification of the East
Ihy - The Child God
Imhotep Lord of Science and Thought
Ipy (Opet), A Mother of Osiris
Isis Queen of the Gods
Lusaas - Creator Goddess
Kabechet Helper of Anubis
Kek and Kauket, Deities of Darkness, Obscurity and Night
Khenmu The Great Potter
Kherty - Ram-headed God
Kephri The Great Scarab
Khonsu God of the Moon
Maat Lady of Truth and Order
Mafdet Goddess of Scorpions and Snakes
Mahaf - The Ferryman
Mahes The Lord of the Massacre
Male Child Gods of Egypt
Mandulis - The Lower Nubian Sun God
Mehen Defender of the Sun Boat
Mehet-Weret - Cow Goddess of the Sky
Menhit Lion-headed War Goddess
Mertseger Guardian of the Valley of the Kings
Meskhenet - Goddess of Childbrith
Mihos - Son of Bastet
Min God of Fertility
Montu, Warrior and Solar God
Mut Grandmother of the Gods
Nefertem Lord of the Sunrise
Nehebkau, the God who Joined the Ka to the Body
Nekhbet Goddess of the Power of Kings
Neith Goddess of War and Funerals
Nephthys Lady of the Wings
Nun and Naunet Gods of Chaos and Water
Nut Goddess of the Firmament
The Ogdoad The Primordial Creation Gods
Onuris The War God
Osiris Lord of the Dead
Pakhet The Strength of Woman
Panebtawy - The Child God
Peteese and Pihor - Brother Gods
Ptah The Creator
Qadesh - Goddess of Esctasy and Sexual Pleasure
Re (Ra) The Sun God
Renenutet Goddess of the Harvest
Reshep - The Syrian War God
Sah and Sopdet (Sothis) The Astral God and Goddess
Satet Goddess of the Inundation
Satis Guardian of the Borders
Sebiumeker - Meroitic God of Procreation
Sefkhet-Abwy - Goddess of Writing and Temple Libraries
Seker The Resurrected Osiris
Sekhmet The Eye of Ra
Sepa - Centipede God
Serapis the Composit God
Serqet (Selkis) Scorpion Goddess
Seshat Goddess of writing, measurements
Set God of Evil
Shay - Personified Destiny
Shesmetet - Leonine Goddess
Shesmu Demon god of the Win Press
Shu God of the Air and Sky
Sia - The Perceptive Mind
Sobek Guard of the Gods
Sons of Horus Gods of the Viscera and the Canopic Jars
Sopedu - The Border Patrol God
Ta-Bitjet - A Wife of Horus
Tasenetnofret - The Good Sister
Taweret Goddess Demoness of Birth
Tayet - Goddess of Weaving
Tefnut Goddess of Moisture
Tatenen - "Father of Gods" and the God of the Rising Earth
Thoth God of Wisdom
Wadj Wer - The Pregnant God
Wadjet The Serpent Goddess
Weneg - Ancient Son of Re
Wepwawet (Upuaut) The Opener of the Ways
Wosret - Goddess of Thebes
Yah - Another Moon God
Yamm - God of the Sea
RELIGIOUS TEXTS
-Old Kingdom
Pyramid texts from Teti I's pyramid.
This is a collection of rituals and magical texts in hieroglyphs inscribed on the walls of the burial chamber, ante-chamber and other rooms and corridors inside the royal pyramids of the Vth and Vth Dynasties (initiated by Pharaoh Unis). As most of these texts start with the expression "Dd-mdw" or "words to say", egyptologists refer to them as "utterances" or "spells". These nearly thousand spells, ranging in length from a few words to several pages in a modern translation, all belong to one of three categories :
Offering Rituals : to be recited during the presentation of individual offerings, in which the deceased is generally addressed as "Osiris", whereas the offering itself is referred to as the "Eye of Horus". They are short and often contain a "pun" on the name of what is offered. This ritual began with a series of utterances designed to "wpt r" or "open the mouth" of the deceased, so that the mummy could recover its senses and powers in the afterlife before the offerings were presented ;
Resurrection Rituals: these long texts were also to be recited to the deceased and were found in the antechamber and burial chamber. They were intended to release the soul ("ba") from its attachment to the mummy, so that it could begin its daily cycle (at night with the mummy, during the day among the living), though on a different plane of existence, namely as a spirit ("akh") like the gods;
Personal Spells : these line the walls of the other rooms and corridors of the royal tomb, and had to be spoken by the deceased's soul as it made its way through the night toward its rebirth at dawn. Originally in the first person, they were often edited into the third person for each tomb (substituting the name of the deceased for the original first-person pronouns).
Scenes from the tombs of officials show the same kind of rituals being performed as given in the royal Pyramid Texts. Instead of the Offering Ritual, these non-royal tombs often had an "offering list", and the order of these offerings was usually identical to the offerings mentioned in the Pyramid Texts.
-First Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom
Coffin Texts
The Coffin Texts superseded the Pyramid Texts as early as the VIII th Dynasty (First Intermediary Period), but their principal sources are the later cemeteries of the nomarchs of Middle Egypt in the XII th Dynasty. Most of them were written on papyrus or wood coffins in an early form of Middle Egyptian, mostly in cursive hieroglyphs or sometime hieratic.
During the First Intermediate Period, officials began to inscribe Resurrection Rituals and some Personal Spells from the Pyramid Texts on the walls of their own burial chambers and coffins. These were often accompanied by new spells, known as the Coffin Texts, a body of nearly twelve hundred spells. Most are Personal Spells in the first person and meant to give the soul save passage from the tomb to its new spiritual life. In contrast to the Pyramid Texts, these spells employ "vignettes" or illustrations (though only rarely).
These texts also contain a new type of funerary text, the "Books of the Netherworld", or texts providing a description of the various places in the "Duat" or netherworld, along with the words the soul needed to know to pass safely through them. The most elaborate of these guides is known as The Book of Two Ways, illustrated with a map of the regions described. It still lacks the clear arrangement of the later "Books of the Netherworld" like the Amduat and starts the journey of the soul through the hereafter with sunrise (and not, as later, at dusk). These books represented the results of government-funded research into the hereafter !
The Coffin Texts eliminated the royal exclusivity of the Pyramid Texts, for every deceased person had a soul and was an "Osiris NN". The essential content of the Pyramid Texts remained, but new motifs were added: transformation spells (the importance of the scarab beetle), reunion spells, battle spells (against Apophis, the gigantic serpent and enemy of Re) and the Judgment of the Dead. Although the importance of Osiris greatly gained, the celestial afterlife of the Pyramid Texts survived.
-Second Intermediate Period
The Book of the Dead
Funerary texts began to be separated into several distinct corpora. The most important of these was the so-called "Book of the Dead", known to the Egyptians as "prt m hrw" or "coming forth by day", a hundred or so spells of the personal type (called "chapters"), including spells from the earlier literature (Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts). These texts were generally written in cursive hieroglyphs on papyrus with vignettes.
This text primarily served the purposes of provisioning and protecting the deceased. The general Judgment of the Dead, to which every deceased is subject, played an important part.
4. The Netherworld guides : the Amduat, Book of Gates, Book of Caverns, etc.
The Book of the Two Ways of the Coffin Texts, gave rise to several New Kingdom royal netherworld guides. The netherworld was divided into twelve separate sections (cf. the hours of the night). They were written in Middle Egyptian. The mystery of the nocturnal rejuvenation of Re in his nightly journey (in the Book of Caverns, first appearing in the Osireion, as Osiris) was their focus. In the Amduat and the Book of Gates, the battle with Apophis is prominent and follows the moment Re has been rekindled (in the Sixth Hour of the night).
5. Special compositions: Mouth-Opening Ritual, Litany of Re, Book of the Heavenly Cow
From the earlier ritual texts found in the Pyramid Texts, the New Kingdom composed 75 "acts" in which priests "open the mouth" of a statue of the deceased, providing it with offerings. They preform the ritualists. In the Litany of Re, a description and a praise of that deity is given. He descends into the netherworld, renews life, cares for the blessed and punished the damned. The central motif of the Book of the Heavenly Cow is Re's withdrawal to the sky because of the rebellion of humankind against him.
RELIGIOUS BELIEFS
Pre-dynastic Egypt had formulated the ideas and beliefs of a "greater being", which was expressed in pictures, but some scholars suggest that "writing" was invented in order to communicate spiritual thoughts to the masses. Now the pictures had ideas, and took on human traits. The gods lived, died, hunted, went into battle, gave birth, ate, drank, and had human emotions. The gods’ reigns overlapped, and, in some instances, merged. There was no organized hierarchy structure of their reign. The dominance of the gods depended on the beliefs of the reigning king. Their area of dominance depended on where the king wanted his capital.
Likewise, the myths changed with the location of the gods, as did their names. Names in ancient Egypt were very mystic and powerful. It was thought that if you inscribed your enemies' name on something, then broke it, that enemy would either be afflicted, or possibly die. If you knew a name you had power. In the same respect, using a name could be beneficial. Each god had five names, and each was associated with an element, such as air, with celestial bodies, or were a descriptive statement about the god, such as strong, virile or majestic.
Herodotus tells us that the Egyptians "are religious to a higher degree than any other people"
Like the members of any other human culture, the ancient Egyptians were driven to find meaning in existence, but there were also other influences on their religion, such as the need to justify kingship, among others.
The spiritual world that was created by the ancient Egyptians was a richly fascinating one which remains unique in the history of human religion, but at the same time, somehow familiar in many ways. The character of that spiritual world was both mysterious and manifest, at once accessible and hidden, for although Egyptian religion was often shrouded in layers of myth and ritual, it nevertheless permeated the ancient civilization of the Nile and ultimately shaped, sustained and directed Egyptian culture in almost every way.
One thing that does seem familiar about their ancient religion was that people were very concerned about the afterlife. Furthermore, in order to avoid being counted among the damned of the afterlife, one had to not only venerate the Egyptian gods, but also live by a code of standards that would be judged after death.
The Pharaoh represented Egypt before the gods, and it is he who is depicted most often worshiping them while standing, kneeling or even crawling. In making offerings to the gods, the Pharaoh’s attempts to secure order, or Ma'at, which is compulsory for gods as well as Pharaohs.
The Pharaoh was the single link between the divine and the profane, as well as the representative of the gods on Earth. There were some gods and goddesses that were more important and prominent than others. Here are some of the more important ones:
RELIGIOUS PRACTICES
Ancient Egyptian religion was a complex system of polytheistic beliefs and rituals which were an integral part of ancient Egyptian society. It centered on the Egyptians' interaction with a multitude of deities who were believed to be present in, and in control of, the forces and elements of nature. The myths about these gods were meant to explain the origins and behavior of the forces they represented. The practices of Egyptian religion were efforts to provide for the gods and gain their favor.
Formal religious practice centered on the pharaoh, the king of Egypt. Although he was a human, the pharaoh was believed to be descended from the gods. He acted as the intermediary between his people and the gods, and was obligated to sustain the gods through rituals and offerings so that they could maintain order in the universe. Therefore, the state dedicated enormous resources to the performance of these rituals and to the construction of the temples where they were carried out. Individuals could also interact with the gods for their own purposes, appealing for their help through prayer or compelling them to act through magic. These popular religious practices were distinct from, but closely linked with, the formal rituals and institutions. The popular religious tradition grew more prominent in the course of Egyptian history as the status of the pharaoh declined. Another important aspect of the religion was the belief in the afterlife and funerary practices. The Egyptians made great efforts to ensure the survival of their souls after death, providing tombs, grave goods, and offerings to preserve the bodies and spirits of the deceased.
The religion had its roots in Egypt's prehistory and lasted for more than 3,000 years. The details of religious belief changed over time as the importance of particular gods rose and declined, and their intricate relationships shifted. At various times certain gods became preeminent over the others, including the sun god Ra, the creator god Amun, and the mother goddess Isis. For a brief period, in the aberrant theology promulgated by the pharaoh Akhenaten, a single god, the Aten, replaced the traditional pantheon. Yet the overall system endured, even through several periods of foreign rule, until the coming of Christianity in the early centuries AD. It left behind numerous religious writings and monuments, along with significant influences on cultures both ancient and modern.
The beliefs and rituals now referred to as "Ancient Egyptian religion" existed within every aspect of Egyptian culture. Indeed, their language possessed no single term corresponding to the modern European concept of religion. Ancient Egyptian religion was not a monolithic institution, but consisted of a vast and varying set of beliefs and practices, linked by their common focus on the interaction between the world of humans and the world of the divine. The characteristics of the gods who populated the divine realm were inextricably linked to the Egyptians' understanding of the properties of the world in which they lived.
The Egyptians believed that the phenomena of nature were divine forces in and of themselves. These deified forces included the elements, animal characteristics, or abstract forces. The Egyptians believed in a pantheon of gods, which were involved in all aspects of nature and human society. Their religious practices were efforts to sustain and placate these phenomena and turn them to human advantage. This polytheistic system was very complex, as some deities were believed to exist in many different manifestations, and some had multiple mythological roles. Conversely, many natural forces, such as the sun, were associated with multiple deities. The diverse pantheon ranged from gods with vital roles in the universe to minor deities or "demons" with very limited or localized functions. It could include gods adopted from foreign cultures, and sometimes even humans: deceased pharaohs were believed to be divine, and occasionally, distinguished commoners such as Imhotep also became deified.
Many gods were associated with particular regions in Egypt where their cults were most important. However, these associations changed over time, and they did not necessarily mean that the god associated with a place had originated there. For instance, the god Monthu was the original patron of the city of Thebes. Over the course of the Middle Kingdom, however, he was displaced in that role by Amun, who may have arisen elsewhere. The national popularity and importance of individual gods fluctuated in a similar way.
The Egyptian conception of the universe centered on Ma'at, a word that encompasses several concepts in English, including "truth," "justice," and "order." It was the fixed, eternal order of the universe, both in the cosmos and in human society. It had existed since the creation of the world, and without it the world would lose its cohesion. In Egyptian belief, Ma'at was constantly under threat from the forces of disorder, so all of society was required to maintain it.
On the human level this meant that all members of society should cooperate and coexist; on the cosmic level it meant that all of the forces of nature - the gods - should continue to function in balance. This latter goal was central to Egyptian religion. The Egyptians sought to maintain Ma'at in the cosmos by sustaining the gods through offerings and by performing rituals which staved off disorder and perpetuated the cycles of nature.
The most important part of the Egyptian view of the cosmos was the conception of time, which was greatly concerned with the maintenance of Ma'at. Throughout the linear passage of time, a cyclical pattern recurred, in which Ma'at was renewed by periodic events which echoed the original creation. Among these events were the annual Nile flood and the succession from one king to another, but the most important was the daily journey of the sun god Ra.
When envisioning the shape of the cosmos, the Egyptians saw the earth as a flat expanse of land, personified by the god Geb, over which arched the sky goddess Nut. The two were separated by Shu, the god of air. Beneath the earth lay a parallel underworld and undersky, and beyond the skies lay the infinite expanse of Nu, the chaos that had existed before creation. The Egyptians also believed in a place called the Duat, a mysterious region associated with death and rebirth, that may have lain in the underworld or in the sky. Each day, Ra traveled over the earth across the underside of the sky, and at night he passed through the Duat to be reborn at dawn.
In Egyptian belief, this cosmos was inhabited by three types of sentient beings. One was the gods; another was the spirits of deceased humans, who existed in the divine realm and possessed many of the gods' abilities. Living humans were the third category, and the most important among them was the pharaoh, who bridged the human and divine realms.
The procedures for religious rituals were frequently written on papyri, which were used as instructions for those performing the ritual. These ritual texts were kept mainly in the temple libraries. Temples themselves are also inscribed with such texts, often accompanied by illustrations. Unlike the ritual papyri, these inscriptions were not intended as instructions, but were meant to symbolically perpetuate the rituals even if, in reality, people ceased to perform them. Magical texts likewise describe rituals, although these rituals were part of the spells used for specific goals in everyday life. Despite their mundane purpose, many of these texts also originated in temple libraries and later became disseminated among the general populace.
HOLIDAYS
Feasts and festivals played an important part in Egyptian life. In every age, there were new feasts to be celebrated. In the Pharaonic and Greco-Roman ages, there was a particular feast for every god, in which clergymen carried a statue of the god in a great procession that all people attended and at which clowns, singers, and dancers performed. Theatrical plays depicting myths were also performed. Celebrations for friendly gods such as Bes were held by the people rather than the priests. On the day of Bes, no work was done on the pyramid and people would parade down the street dressed in masks of Bes, while dancers and tambourine players followed. The townspeople joined in the singing from their rooftops, while the children would run along beside the dancers singing and clapping their hands. The whole town enjoyed the festival and feast.
Other occasions were New Year's Day and various feasts for the beginning of the seasons. There was the feast of flood tide that is known in the modern age as Nile Flood Day. In addition, there is the feast of spring, which is currently called Sham El-Nassem. Egyptians still celebrate these two feasts.
HEAVEN AND HELL
One of the more famous aspects of the Egyptian religious beliefs was their ideas of the afterlife. They believed the physical body had to be preserved to allow a place for their spirit to dwell in the afterlife. Because of this, mummification was performed to preserve the body. In addition, large pyramids were constructed as tombs for the pharaohs in the Old Kingdom. Later, rock cut tombs were used to bury the pharaohs.
They thought that people had two important parts: a "ka", or life force that they only had while alive, and a "ba" which was more like a soul. If the "ka" and "ba" could be united in the afterworld the person would live in the afterlife. A key component was that the body be preserved for this to happen. This is why the Egyptians used the embalming process, or mummification, to preserve the dead.
The ancient Egyptians believed in a distinct process which the ba would undergo was generally as follows:
-After the burial, the deceased began a long journey through the underworld. The deceased was led by Anubis, the god of the dead, in what is called the Hall of Two Truths.
- At one end was Osiris, seated on a throne and accompanied by other deities, and 42 judges.
-At the center of the room was placed the balance, whose axis was measured carefully by Thoth, the god of the scribes, on which was weighed on the heart of the deceased.
-In front of the deity and the courts, the deceased had to pronounce a negative confession: his declaration of innocence. The deceased was utter a formulaic statement indicating that he had not caused harm to others.
-His heart was then placed on the scale and measured against a feather. If the plate on which lay the heart sat, was tilted more than that on which lay the feather, symbol of justice, the deceased would be devoured by Amit, a monster half lion and half hippopotamus.
-Otherwise, the deceased could enter the kingdom of Osiris and thereby attain the fields of IARU, a kind of paradise, where Ushabti, little men purpose-built from timber, would work to meet its needs.
But before he or she reached this pleasant goal, the soul of the deceased had to make a long journey. On the boat of the god Ra, the deceased had to cross a lake of fire, guarded by four baboons, face crocodiles, snakes and the evil Apophis, the gigantic monster condemned forever to threaten the sinking of the boat of Ra. The only help for the deceased were the amulets and formulas posed by priests during mummification.
SOCIAL ORDER
PHARAOH
The Ancient Egyptian Government was ruled first and foremost by the Pharaoh. The Pharaoh was the supreme leader not only of the government, but also of the religion. However, the Pharaoh couldn't run the government all by himself, so he had a hierarchy of rulers and leaders below him who ran different aspects of the government.
PHARAOH’s WIVES
The wives of the Pharaohs were the second most powerful people in the land after the Pharaohs.
Vizier
The Primary leader of the Government under the Pharaoh was the Vizier. The vizier was the Chief Overseer of the land, sort of like a Prime Minister. All the other officials reported into the vizier. Perhaps the most famous vizier was the first one, Imhotep. Imhotep architected the first pyramid and was later made into a god.The Egyptian law stated that the vizier was to 1) act by the law 2) judge fairly and 3) not act willfully or headstrong.
Nomarks
Under the vizier were local governors called Nomarks. Nomarks ruled over an area of land called a nome. A nome was like a state or province. Nomarks were sometimes appointed by the Pharaoh, while at other times the position of nomark would be hereditary and handed down from father to son.
Other Officials
Other officials that reported into Pharaoh were the army commander, the chief treasurer, and the minister of public works. These officials each had different responsibilities and powers, but Pharaoh had the final say. Many of the Pharaoh's officials were priests and scribes.
SCRIBES
Scribes were important to the government as they kept track of the finances and recorded taxes and the census. Overseers of the land were also appointed to keep track of the farmers and to make sure they were doing their jobs.
Monarchy
The average person had no say in the government. However, because Pharaoh was considered a god, and the people's representative to the gods, they often accepted the Pharaoh as their supreme leader without complaint.
Kenbet
In the New Kingdom, court cases were ruled by a local council of elders called a Kenbet. Pharaohs would hold court for his top officials and high priests. People would approach him and kiss the ground at his feet. They did not have a complicated set of laws and statutes. In many cases the judges were to rule using common sense in an effort to come to an agreement.
CITIZENS
Citizens had to pay taxes to support the government.
INITIATION
There were many degrees of Initiation and many levels of Priesthoods as all things have hierarchies. Some/many were elaborate, but are too numerous to list. Some priests were born into families of Priests or Priestesses and assumed the destiny of the family bloodline when their predecessors got close to death. A Priest or Priest could select their successor. As this would not be an easy journey one had to choose carefully.
Secrets were told within the families about the mystery teachings and the Rites of Passages of Initiation. One usually became a Priest or Priestess after a long course of study, fasting, ritual, and a lifetime of dedication. Remember, the life span in ancient Egypt was not long, the souls of many Priests often reincarnating again and again keep the sacred knowledge within certain bloodlines. To this very day, many people still have the ability to access that information as they were there.
Priests would study for many years to achieve the highest level of spiritual accomplishment they were meant to attain. They would forfeit all personal goals and belongings living a life of semi-solitude and worship of the Gods and Goddesses of Egypt. For the most part they were men, but there were High Priestesses.
As with priests today, many initiates did not marry nor have families. Some were said to have mated with the gods during an Initiation, producing offspring with unique abilities.There were Brotherhoods - most notably the Great White Brotherhood - that some believe exist to this very day.
PURPOSE OF LIFE
Ancient Egyptians believed the purpose of life was to nourish the seeds of the divine within us all. They thought if a person or god is successful in this and passes the test of the Tuat, or Underworld, and the Weighing of the Heart, the reward is eternal life with the gods.The ancient Egyptians were obsessed with death and the afterlife.
They believed that a person cannot succeed in life without conscious application of the metaphysical faculty (the mind symbolized by the heart) with the physical faculty (action symbolized by the tongue). If a person failed in his or her life, that is, if their actions were not harmonious with nature, they would reincarnate to earth in order to try again, after being evaluated by Anubis and Thoth in Tuat. A person did not meet Osiris unless he or she had proven him/herself by passing this test as being in harmony with Maat, or order and justice
CONCLUSION
Ancient Egyptian religion has had profound effects on modern day religions. Much greater than most people recognize.
The following are a few similarities, as they relate to the theological principles and practices, between Ancient Egypt and the Bible:
Egyptologist Sir E. A. Wallis Budge wrote:
"The new religion (Christianity) which was preached there by St. Mark and his immediate followers, in all essentials so closely resembled that which was the outcome of the worship of Osiris, Isis, and Horus that popular opposition was entirely disarmed."
The similarities between the life of Jesus, ( who lived in Egypt for a time as a small child with his family and whose home was not far from Egypt) as told in the Bible (written by Jews whose ancestors had spent four generations in Egypt until being freed by Moses), are very coincidental to the life of certain Egyptian gods .
Below is a short general synopsis of the life of Horus:
- Was born of the virgin Isis-Meri on December 25th in a cave/manger with his birth being announced by a star in the East and attended by three wise men.
- His earthly step-father was named "Seb".
- He was of royal descent.
- At age 12 he was a child teacher in the Temple, and at 30, he was baptized, having disappeared for 18 years.
- Was baptized in the river Eridanus or Iaurutana (Jordan) by "Anup the Baptizer" who was later decapitated.
- He had a small number of close disciples, two of whom were his "witnesses" and were named "Anup" and "AAn" .
- He performed miracles, exorcised demons and raised El-Azarus ("El-Osiris") from the dead.
- Horus walked on water.
- His personal epithet was "Iusa" the "ever-becoming son" of "Ptah," the "Father." He was called the "Holy Child."
- He was crucified between two thieves, was dead for three days , and was resurrected.
- Titles: Way, the Truth the Light; Messiah; God's Anointed Son; Son of Man; Good Shepherd; Lamb of God; Word made flesh; Word of Truth.
- Was "the Fisher" and was associated with the Fish ("Ichthys"), Lamb and Lion.
- He came to fulfill the Law.
- Was called "the KRST" or "Anointed One."
Now compare the life of Osiris :
- Had well over 200 divine names, including Lord of Lords, King of Kings, God of Gods, Resurrection and the Life, Good Shepherd, Eternity and Everlastingness, the god who "made men and women to be born again."
- His coming was announced by Three Wise Men: the three stars Mintaka, Anilam, and Alnitak in the belt of Orion, which point directly to Osiris' star in the east, Sirius, significant of his birth
- Was a devoured Host. His flesh was eaten in the form of communion cakes of wheat, the 'plant of Truth'.
- The 23rd Psalm copied an Egyptian text appealing to Osiris the Good Shepherd to lead the deceased to the 'green pastures' and 'still waters' of the nefer-nefer land, to restore the soul and body, and to give protection in the valley of the shadow of death...
- The Lord's Prayer was preceeded by an Egyptian hymn to Osiris-Amen beginning, 'O Amen, O Amen, who are in heaven. Amen (God) was also invoked at the end of every prayer.
- The teachings of Osiris and Jesus are similar.
- As the god of the vine, a great traveling teacher who civilized the world. Ruler and judge of the dead.
- Osiris' resurrection served to provide hope to all that they may do likewise and become eternal.
Many elements of the Auset (Isis) myth and the story of the Virgin Mary are very similar, for both were able to conceive without the male impregnation. Heru (Horus) was conceived and born after the death of Auset's husband, namely Ausar (Osiris), and as such, she was revered as the Virgin Mother.
The spheres of angels and archangels in Christianity are strikingly similar to Ancient Egypt’s heirachy of neteru (gods/goddesses). The Song of Moses in Deuteronomy (32:43), as found in a cave at Qumran near the Dead Sea, mentions the word gods in the plural: “Rejoice, O heavens, with him; and do obeisance to him, ye gods.” When the passage is quoted in the New Testament (Hebrews, 1:6), the word gods is substituted with angels of God. As such, The neteru who were called gods by some, were endorsed and incorporated into Christianity under a new name, angels.
Various fishing nets and traps are portrayed on the walls of the Ancient Egyptian tombs.In other texts, Heru (Horus) becomes a fisherman and his four disciples ("sons") also fish for him. This is another parallel between Christian and Egyptian symbolism. Christ used the symbolism several times and he made his disciples Fishers of men.
The most distinctive Egyptian symbol is the eye, which plays many complex and subtle roles.The eye is the part of the body able to perceive the light, and is therefore a symbol for the ritual ability.
The Egyptian word for paper was pa-pe-ra. The Greeks called it papyrus. One can easily see that the English word, paper, came from the Egyptian pa-pe-ra. A dictionary will also confirm that the word Bible is of an Egyptian origin. The Bible, or book, was derived from byblos, which is an Egyptian word for papyrus.
There are many Egyptian texts that have notable parallels in the Bible, and outstanding among them is the hymn composed in honor of the Aton by Akhenaton, and Psalm 104. They are both amazingly similar in all particulars, sequence and images.
The thirty chapters of the Teaching of Amenemope (Amenhotep III) contain many wisdom texts which were later adopted in the Old Testament’s Book of Proverbs. Numerous verbal parallels occur between this Egyptian text and the Bible, such as the opening lines of the first chapter:
The Egyptian Book of the Coming Forth by Day (commonly known as the Book of the Dead), the oldest written text in the world, contains a strikingly parallel passage,
I am the Eternal, I am Ra ... I am that which created the Word ... I am the Word ...
St, John’s Gospel begins,
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.
A new unproven , but very interesting and seemingly credible, theory proposes that Moses was actually the Pharaoh Akhenaten (who was known before the fifth year of his seventeen year reign as Amenhotep IV) .It proposes that hundreds of years before his birth there was a minor Exodus from Egypt by some Egyptians who subsequently formed the country of Israel (which name means: Is=Here is, ra= Egyptian name for God, and el= Jewish name for G-d, all together meaning “Here (or in this place) is the Egyptian and Jewish God”). Today Christians and Jews end most prayers with the word “Amen” , which is an Egyptian name which comes from the name “Amen-Ra” who was the king of the Egyptian Gods.
Akhenaten was the first monotheistic Pharaoh. He threw out many of the old deities that had been around for thousands of years, which angered many Egyptians. Eventually there was an uprising and he was deposed as Pharaoh and was banished from Egypt with his followers into the desert . His wife, Nefertiti, was named the new Pharaoh and was known as Smenkhare. She ruled a few years and was replaced by one of the Pharaoh’s sons by another wife, Tutankhamen.
In his 70’s Akhenaten came back to Egypt to attempt to re-establish his monotheistic religion but was unsuccessful and retreated back into the desert with his followers .Eventually, after wandering the desert, he returned to Israel. His body, and that of Nefertiti have never been found .Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon, who discovered the tomb of Tutankhamen, are said to have found some hidden scrolls in the tomb which were then permanently secreted away and which described this story of Moses.The name ‘Moses” in Egyptian means “of the house of Pharaoh”.
Finally, in the three religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, whenever the faithful pray, regardless of language, they always end their prayer by saying Amen. There is no linguistic translation for Amen, because it is a name and not a word. The origin of Amen is Egyptian, for Amen was the Egyptian name for God.
****
We can also learn from the ancient Egyptian religion that all religions go through a cycle of birth, flourishing and finally- death. What happened with the ancient Egyptian religion (like many other ancient religions) is likely to also happen with all modern religions. The “Law of Cycles” exist everywhere in the Universe and there is no reason to expect anything different for religion. History has confirmed that to be true.
Nevertheless, whatever “new” appears will likely contain elements of the “old” that preceded it, this too history teaches us.
Scott Ramsey November 3, 2015.